CONSUMER LAW Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Buyer LAW - Essay Example Regardless of the barrier offered by the respondent the court of request found for the petitioner based on severe risk, despite the fact that the court acknowledged that the respondent had not been careless. (a) the item couldn't be viewed as inadequate as there had been no past occasions of this sort and in this manner they had no motivation to accept that there was any need to change the structure to keep something like this from occurring the condition of logical and specialized information at the applicable time was not to such an extent that a maker of results of a similar portrayal as the item being referred to may be relied upon to have found the deformity in the event that it had existed in his items while they were heavily influenced by him In the primary hearing the court held Mothercare at risk for the wounds and furthermore dismissed any case for contributory carelessness with respect to the inquirer. It was not clarified at the main hearing whether the decision had been founded on carelessness or severe risk or both which prompted Mothercare dwelling an intrigue. At the intrigue hearing the court explained the position, expressing that the decision depended on the damage of the item and not the carelessness of the maker. The intrigue court dismissed the resistance offered under s4(1)(e) of the CPA 1987 comparable to the improvement chance safeguard. In arriving at their choice the court found that Mothercare had not penetrated their obligation of care to the petitioner and that no judicious maker could have foreseen the hazard. Risk along these lines depended on deciding if the item could be considered to be imperfect. (1) Subject to the accompanying arrangements of this segment, there is an imperfection in an item for the motivations behind this Part if the wellbeing of the item isn't, for example, people by and large are qualified for expect; and for those reasons security, corresponding to an item, will incorporate security concerning items included in that item and security in

How Scarcity force an individual to incur opportunity costs- Assignmen

Question 1 a) an) Explain why shortage powers people and society to bring about circumstance costs. Give explicit models. Answer 1 a) Shortage andopportunity costcorrespond to two associating contemplations ineconomicssince people and society must on numerous occasions select among rare resources. in general, monetary resources are not absolutely available continually in unhindered figures, subsequently people and society need to make a choice in regards to which assets to use. The open door cost represents the decision gave up while choosing one source as opposed to some other. These two hypotheses have a straight association since, for example, organizations may use a second rate class albeit extra open hotspot for assembling stock. Question 1 b) Assume a chocolate bar producer advances its items by publicizing and chance to win a free vehicle. Is this vehicle free on the grounds that the champ pays zero for it? Answer 1 b) The clients with the goal of boosting their chance to win the free vehicle have compensated for the chocolate bar. Thus mutually the purchasers have together compensated for vehicle. The expense of the vehicle is the cost of the whole the chocolates. Question 1 c) For what reason is the creation probability wilderness bowed outwards? Answer 1 c) The bowed out nature of the creation probability wilderness is since a portion of the parts of production are better equipped to assembling one thing when contrasted with what they are to assembling some other thing. for example, on the off chance that the two products are staple and dresses, therefore with the goal of assembling further clothing types, at last the most of dynamic ranch land must be owed to garments make thusly, the open door cost of making progressively outsized measures of garments rises as further clothing types are shaped (Case and Fair, 2002). Question 2 a) Assume you own a bistro. Show some of fixed information sources and variable data sources you would use in working the shop. Answer 2 a) Fixed information sources: Coffee shop, insides (counter, crystal fixtures, seats, furniture), espresso making machines Variable information sources: laborers pay rates, subcontractors (upkeep, security), PCs Fixed costs are liberated from fabricate. They happen every month regardless of whether there is n creation. Variable costs occur essentially if there should arise an occurrence of production/deal. Question 2 b) Knick-knacks and dabs fabricating produces 100 sledges for each day. The all out fixed expense for the plant is RM4000 every day and the all out factor cost is RM1,300 every day. Ascertain normal fixed cost, normal variable cost, normal all out expense and the absolute expense at the present yield level. Answer 2 b) AFC= FC/creation amount = 4,000/100 = RM40 Normal Variable cost= variable cost/amount produced= 1,300/100 = RM13 Normal Total Cost = Average fixed cost +Average variable cost= RM40+RM13= RM53 Complete Coat= Variable expense +Fixed Cost= RM 1,300+ RM 4,000= RM 5,300 Question 2 c) Clarify conditions under which work may be treated as a variable expense and conditions under which it would be treated as a fixed expense. Answer 2 c) Fixed work costs are some work costs that will remain unvarying paying little heed to the production force of the organization. An outline of fixed work costs is official compensations. Variable work costs are each work costs that rise or downwards with the measure of creation. Representations of variable work costs comprise of extra time income and transitory representatives compensation. These are costs that support when manufacture lifts and fall with fall in creation. Question 3 a) Talk about the accompanying proclamation. In reality there is no industry which adjusts unequivocally to the business analysts model of flawless rivalry. This implies the model is of minimal reasonable worth. Answer 3 a) An exchange with flawless rivalry has following highlights: Every single associations offer a vague thing. Every single association is value taker. Every single association has a reasonably little bit of the general business. Buyers know the method of the thing being sold and the costs charged by each organization. The business is portrayed by freedom of passageway and way out These five essentials rarely are available aggregately in any single industry. Hence, impeccable rivalry is scarcely (if anytime) found in this present time. For example, most of things have somewhat level of separation. To be sure with a thing as essential as sifted water, for example, producers vary in the arrangement of cleansing, thing size, brand character, etc. Items, for example, rough agrarian things, in spite of the way that they can even now differentiate with respect to quality, show up nearest to being undefined, or having nil separation. Right when a thing comes to include zero separation, its industry is ordinarily joined into somewhat number of considerable organizations, or an oligopoly. Along these lines, there are critical obstructions deflecting ideal rivalry as of developing in current market. Question 3 b) Show with a graph and clarify the short run perfectively serious balance for both the individual firm and the business. Answer 3 b) In a short run perfectively competetive harmony, the singular firm gets its cost as of the business, additionally is, in like manner, known as aprice taker. The business is aggregated of every single organization in the business and the market cost is at where market request is indistinguishable from advertise gracefully. Each sole association need to charge this cost and cant digress as of it. Source: Principles of Economics, Frank and Bernankes, 2001 Question 3 c) Show with a graph and clarify the since a long time ago run impeccably serious balance for the firm. Answer 3 c) Over the long haul organizations are pulled in into the business on the off chance that the present organizations are making supernormal increases. This is in light of the fact that there are no boundaries to enter and considering the way that there is impeccable information. The effect of along these lines to go into the business is to move the business flexibly curve to the correct side, which makes the fall in cost till the tip where all super-customary additions are exhausted (Bordley, 2006). On the off chance that the associations are making misfortunes, they will leave the business segment as there are no hindrances to leave the fragment, and this will move the business gracefully bend to one side, which lifts the cost and engages those staying in the business segment to surmise common additions. Source: Principles of Economics, Frank and Bernankes, 2001 Question 4 a) Assume the salary versatility of interest for pre recorded music conservative plate is +7 and the pay flexibility for a cupboard producers work is +0.7. Think about the effect on pre - recorded music conservative circle and the bureau creators work of a downturn that lessens purchaser pay by 10 percent. Answer 4 a) I) Compact plate Salary versatility of demand= %change sought after/%change in pay 7 = x/10 %change popular = 70% ii) Cabinet Makers Salary versatility of demand= %change sought after/%change in pay '0.7='x/10 %change popular = 7% Question 4 b) In what capacity may you decide if MP3 music player and the pre-recorded music minimal circles are in rivalry with one another? Answer 4 b) This would be dictated by cross flexibility of interest of MP3 music player and the pre-recorded music minimized circles (Robert, 2008). Question 4 c) Decipher the accompanying salary flexibility of interest (YED) values for the accompanying and state if the great is typical or second rate. Answer 4 c) YED = +0.85= Normal merchandise (Necessity Goods) since the YED is under 1 YED = - 2.4 = Inferior great a raise in salary will realize a reduction in the interest and may cause changes to extra extravagant substitutes. Question 4 d) Decipher the accompanying cross value flexibility of interest (XED) and clarify the connection between products. Answer 4 d) XED = +0.85-two merchandise are substitutes since the XED0 XED = - 4.5-two merchandise are supplements since XED References Bordley; McDonald. (2006). Evaluating Income Elasticities from the Average Income of a Product's Buyers and the Population Income Distribution.Journal of Business and Economic Statistics. Case, K.E. also, Fair, R.C. (2002). Standards of Economics, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Straightforward, R.H. what's more, Bernanke, B.S. (2001). Standards of Economics, New York: McGraw Hill/Irwin Perloff, J. (2008).Microeconomics Theory Applications with Calculus. Pearson. ISBN978-0-321-27794-7. Robert, F. (2008).Microeconomics and Behavior(7th ed.). McGraw-Hill.ISBN978-0-07-126349-8.

Is The School Serving A Nutritionally Balanced Meal The Key To Curing

Is The School Serving A Nutritionally Balanced Meal The Key To Curing Is The School Serving A Nutritionally Balanced Meal The Key To Curing Childhood Obesity Discuss â€" Essay Example > From time to time, there are television news flashes of emaciated children in countries such as Ethiopia and Kenya. These images are sometimes haunting and highlight the utter helplessness of those on the frontlines who may have very little to offer to these poor souls. Whereas these poor people in Africa and elsewhere become emaciated because of lack of food, in affluent countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom, some people actually starve themselves in order to conform to the thin image that is supposed to portray beauty. For many years, there have been concerns that the media’s emphasis on the thin image has been luring too many young people, especially girls, towards harming themselves through forced dieting, leading to the possibility of their becoming anorexic. As it turns out, it is only a small minority of these young people who are paying attention to the images of thinness and beauty. For the vast majority the taste of junk food is too difficult to re sist and their easy availability at home and in school has resulted in increasingly expanding waistlines even among very young children. In the United Kingdom and in other affluent societies, as the attention of the society has turned towards obese children and their problems, the question has arisen as to whether the introduction of healthy meals in the school system will help cure childhood obesity. As this paper argues, there is a very high likelihood that wholesale implementation of healthy nutrition programs in schools will help cure obesity, provided that parents do their part on the home front to control what children eat and to provide healthy food rather than allow the eating of junk food to undo any benefits that the children might be gaining through school nutritional programs. Over the past fifteen years, in the United Kingdom, obesity has been increasing among both adults and children. It is not in the UK alone, however, where this trend has been observed. One of the main reasons attention has been centered of late on children is that childhood obesity is linked with adult obesity. In other words, if a child is fat it is likely that he or she will grow into a fat person and experience all the associated negative elements attached to this condition, including the possibility of health problems. Factors that have been linked with obesity risk among children include “parental obesity, low socio-economic status and early maturation (Parsons et al, 1999; cited in McCarthy, Jarrett, Crawley 2001 p. 902). While children cannot choose their parents or influence the socio-economic status of their parents to any great degree there is another obesity-related element for which there could be some meaningful interventions. Regarding the prevalence of obesity among children, even at the age of 5, research indicates that “Problems include low fruit and vegetable consumption, high consumption of soft drinks and the skipping of breakfast. The study also i ndicates that ‘body dissatisfaction’ and dieting are common and that a substantial number of young people in all countries do not meet the current recommended guidelines for physical activity” (Mikkelsen, Rasmussen Young 2005 p. 7).

Financial Crisis And Its Effects On American Economy Essay

A financial crisis involves the value of financial institutions or assets dropping rapidly. It is often associated with a panic on the banks causing investors to sell off assets or withdraw money from savings accounts. This is the result of concern that the value of those assets will drop if left at the financial institution. As the crisis intensifies there is a significant change in the amount of risk that world financial markets are willing and able to accept. This results in easy credit conditions becoming a situation of tight credit and is accompanied by reduced consumer and business confidence. According to experts, credit is the most vital piece to a successful economy. Consumers and businesses rely on credit to make large purchases. In recent years, the American economy has experienced the most severe global financial crisis since the Great Depression of the 1930’s. Unemployment rates rose, and stock and housing markets tumbled. These combined had dramatic eff ects on American households. Global Financial Crisis Effects When sky-high home prices in the United States turned downward, the entire United States financial sector and financial markets overseas faced its most dangerous crisis since the Great Depression. It all began when mortgage dealers loaned home loans to families that did not qualify for ordinary home loans. The terms of these loans were unfavorable the borrowers. These subprime mortgages may have started with low interest ratesShow MoreRelatedThe World s Economy Was Devastated1732 Words   |  7 Pagesthe western world’s economy was devastated. With the crash of the United States Wall Street, the realm drove into what is now known as the â€Å"Great Recession†. Its neighbour to the north, Canada also felt these affects as unemployment and poverty grew. After a decade of despair, the massive rise in government spending for the Second World War and the reductions in taxes, the economies returned to prosper. With decades of industrial ization, population growth and surging economies, the Western WorldRead MoreEconomic Crisis: Effects on the Economy1486 Words   |  6 PagesRunning Head: ECONOMIC CRISIS: EFFECTS ON THE ECONOMY 2 Abstract The United States is obviously in a state of economic despair. This essay has supporting facts that prove the economy is definitely not on the mend. The public has been led to believe that this downward spiral is almost over. What will be proven in this paper is that foreclosure rates are still dramatically increasing and that the total in unemployment rates is deceiving. Without more jobs, consumersRead MoreExploring the Contagion and Its Effect on Macroeconomic Conditions1452 Words   |  6 Pagescollateralized debt instruments featuring subprime mortgages, began to struggle. The result was a credit crisis, followed by substantial government intervention in the industry. This crisis then spread throughout much of the rest of the world. The contagion effect was driven by factors such as financial institution connectedness and exposure to the US economy. This paper will explore the contagion, and its effect on macroeconomic conditions both in the United States and around the world. Body A contagionRead MoreThe Great Depression Of The 1930s Essay1689 Words   |  7 PagesGlobal Crisis of 2008 in Comparison to the Great Depression of the 1930s Introduction The economic crisis’ of the 1930s and 2000s greatly impacted the United Sates (U.S) and the world. The Great Depression and Global Crisis were both major economic crisis’s the originated in the United States and spread to foreign markets around the world. The Great Depression is regarded as the biggest economic downturn, due to many factors like the stock market crash. The Global Crisis on the other hand, was aRead MoreChina And China Case Study1578 Words   |  7 Pagesthe Prospects for the Development of Economic Relations between the PRC and the USA China has become one of the great powers, without which it is already impossible to imagine the world economy and politics. Moreover, this power is one of the main sources of problems for the US: a state with a non-market economy and the ruling Communist Party is a direct challenge for the United States. However, the United States is the largest economic power, whose economic interests take precedence over politicalRead MoreRecession Turmoil Caused By U.s. Subprime Mortgage Crisis874 Words   |  4 PagesSubprime Mortgage Crisis had eventually evolved to global financial crisis. The financial crisis that has engulfed the world is really a disaster, leading to precipitous shrinkage of human wealth and instantaneous evaporation of long-time efforts by financial institutions. But why did such financial crisis take place? Who should be blamed? As far as I concern, Federal Reserve deserves the greatest blame, as its ultra-loose monetary policy created housing bubble, sowing the seeds of crisis. And its subsequentRead MoreEssay on The Economic Impact of the Mexican Peso Crisis1568 Words   |  7 PagesPeso, leading to what is now considered as the Mexican Peso Crisis. The crisis was characterized by the drastic decline in the value of the Mexican Peso. The Mexican Peso Crisis is considered significant because of its impact on other parts of the region, including Brazil. The following is a discussion of the causes and impact of the Mexican Peso Crisis. The events/causes that led up to the devaluation of the peso The Mexican Peso Crisis can be traced to the decision of then president Zedillo’sRead MoreAnalysis of â€Å"the Global Financial Crisis: Causes, Effects, Policies and Prospects† Dominick Salvatore, Journal of Politics Society, Columbia University1110 Words   |  5 PagesAnalysis of â€Å"The Global Financial Crisis: Causes, Effects, Policies and Prospects† Dominick Salvatore, Journal of Politics Society, Columbia University June 2010 Marija Nikolic December 2012 Global financial crises has brought into focus debate about decisions made by the countries which are leading economic forces, making them to reconsider past living standards and habits. With the aim to examine the causes, effects, policies and prospects for the financial crisis D.Salvatore publishedRead MoreDangers of Monopolies and Large Corporations1163 Words   |  5 Pagesrewards worth the systemic risk to our economy, and every day life? American history is littered monopolies and large corporations that have caused, recessions, depressions, market crashes and economic uncertainty in the wake of their collapses. Monopolies also limit diversification to both consumers and to the marketplace in general, due to the nature that they would be the majority the market anyway. Monopolies also reduce competiveness and innovations in the economy. Regardless of the industry the monopolyRead MoreThe Crisis Of 2008 And Its Effects On The Economy1361 Words   |  6 PagesThe Crisis of 200 8 has been the worst financial crisis since the devastating era of the Great Depression. The Crisis of 2008 just like the Great depression left millions of people unemployed, and homeless. After the crisis the causes were viewed like speculation, fragility of the system, and greed of the managers which adversely affected the market. The effects of a financial crisis are truly devastating to the economy, and many people that live in the country of which it occurred. There are many

The Oldest Country in the World Is One of These Nations

There are many countries with impressively long histories, but to determine which country is the oldest, one must first differentiate between countries and empires. Not doing so could produce incorrect and contradictory answers. Empire Vs. Country Empires are defined as political units whose rule covers wide expanses and encompasses several territories. Countries are defined as sovereign states with their own territory, population, and government. One of the key differences between empires and countries is that empires have less clearly defined territory geographically than countries and countries are independent and separate from other entities. Empires are more like groups of countries that share a government. Empires Empires existed in ancient China, Japan, Iran (Persia), Greece, Rome, Egypt, Korea, Mexico, and India, but were not, of course, as we know these nations today. Their starting dates do not correlate with their modern namesakes. These empires had central governments ruling over their vast territories. The makeup of ancient empires largely consisted of agglomerations of city-states or fiefdoms whose jurisdictions overlapped that of the imperial government. Much of an empires territory was temporary (with fluid boundaries) and often won through war or marriage alliances of monarchs. Because of this, many city-states did not function as unified entities, even if they came to be considered part of the same empire. Countries Empires were far from the modern nation-state or sovereign country, which emerged in the 19th century, and the two entities did not coexist for long. In fact, many times an empires downfall became a nation-states beginning. Often, todays nation-states arose from the dissolution of empires and were formed around communities that shared common geography, language, and culture. Ultimately, it is not possible to definitively say what country is the oldest, but the following three are most often cited as the worlds oldest countries. San Marino By many accounts, the Republic of San Marino, one of the worlds smallest countries, is also the worlds oldest country. The tiny country that is completely landlocked by Italy was founded on September 3rd in the year 301 BCE. A monastery at the top of Mount Titano, likely the center of the community, was constructed in sixth century BCE. However, the nation wasnt recognized as independent until CE 1631 by the pope, who controlled much of central Italy politically at the time. San Marinos continued independence was made possible by its isolated position amid fortresses in high, mountainous terrain. San Marinos constitution, written in the year 1600, is the worlds oldest. Japan Japans history as both an empire and a country can be confusing. According to Japanese history, the colonial empires first emperor, Emperor Jimmu, founded the country of Japan in 660 BCE. However, it was not until at least eighth-century CE that Japanese culture and Buddhism spread across the islands. Over its long history, Japan has seen many different types of governments and leaders. While the country celebrates 660 BCE as the year of its founding, it wasnt until the Meiji Restoration of 1868 that modern Japan emerged. China The first recorded dynasty in Chinese history existed over 3,500 years ago when the feudal Shang dynasty ruled from 17th to 11th century BCE. However, the modern country of China celebrates 221 BCE as the date of its founding, the year Qin Shi Huang proclaimed himself the first emperor of China. But China went through many more changes and dynasties to become the country it is today. In third-century CE, the Han dynasty unified Chinese culture and tradition. In the 13th century, the Mongols invaded China and decimated its population and culture. Chinas Qing dynasty was overthrown during a revolution in 1912, spurring the creation of the Republic of China. Finally, in 1949 the Republic of China itself was overthrown by Mao Tse Tungs communist rebels and the Peoples Republic of China was created. This is China as the world now knows it. More Old Countries Modern countries such as Egypt, Iraq, Iran, Greece, and India bear so little resemblance to their ancient counterparts that their founding is technically considered recent. Many of these countries trace their modern roots only as far back as the 19th century and that is why their names do not appear in lists of very old countries. However, some modern countries have remained more unchanged and can trace their roots much further back. See this list for other old countries and their dates of origin. France (CE 843)Austria (CE 976)Hungary (CE 1001)Portugal (CE 1143)Mongolia (CE 1206)Thailand (CE 1238)Andorra (CE 1278)Switzerland (CE 1291)Iran (CE 1501)

Political Cartoon Analysis Free Essays

Rhetorical Analysis on Political Cartoon: NRA vs. Congress Luis Garza Texas AM International University Abstract Rhetorical Analysis on Political Cartoon: NRA vs. Congress Murder. We will write a custom essay sample on Political Cartoon Analysis or any similar topic only for you Order Now Massacre. Mourning. Sorrow. In the recent months, the United States has gone through two of the most devastating serial massacre in history. One which took place in Aurora, Colorado and another in an elementary school located in Sandy Hook, Connecticut. With this said, Congress, along with President Obama, have been trying to regulate the availability of weapons around the nation. The National Rifle Association, also referred as the NRA, is nonprofit organization which was founded in 1871 (quote) that â€Å"promotes the right of citizens to bear arms. † Due to these massacres, the United States Congress and the NRA have been constantly debating whether or not gun laws should be restricted. In this political cartoon, the an NRA representative is shown holding their â€Å"favorite assault weapon† which is what we see as a Fox Newscaster. (continue†¦) Creator Rob Tornoe has been featured in various websites such as the New York Observer and The Philadelphia Inquirer to name a few. (cite) His credentials include numerous awards such as â€Å"Best Cartoon† given by the New Jersey chapter of the Society of Professional Journalists. (cite) One of his cartoons was also used to challenge the George W. Bush administration towards the Iraq War. (cite). This specific cartoon was featured on â€Å"Media Matters† website which is very analytical when it comes to political topics. These are the guys you should be listening to and reading. They portray the actual news that we’re supposed to be listening to. Yet, millions of followers listen to their so called â€Å"news† and base their public votes over what they cast. This is very sad, but true. The author creates humorous cartoons of very serious topics going on in the United States. As many other cartoonists, he plays a very important role in journalism and getting the citizens of this country the right information. Although some of them are bias. For quite some time, Fox News has been known very bias towards the Republican Party. It’s very clear that this party is very influential in the NRA. The author clearly shows how Fox News is used as an â€Å"assault weapon† (cartoon) used to make the people believe their side of the story. Making President Obama be portrayed like a dictator trying to control the people â€Å"just like Hitler† (cartoon). By using humor, the author uses his influence to support President Obama. Due to recent conflicts, the NRA has been bashing his administration, and blaming him for the two massive events that happened. They argue that if Congress bans the right to own a weapon, they won’t be able to defend themselves when it’s needed. A perfect example came with the Sandy Hook Elementary shooting, a troubled teenage boy got a hold of some very powerful weapons and in one of his break downs and he proceeded to kill the lives of innocent kids and adults. But this would be a double edged argument. The troubled teenager had legal weapons and nobody in the school had any due to gun free school zones. So you as a voter make up your mind. Should we have guns completely banned all together? And should we have completely gun free school zones? And that is what this cartoonist is trying to do, make you understand that Fox News is only trying to support the NRA and keep gun laws as they are. Reference Tornoe, R. (Artist). (2013). How the right-wing media inflames the gun debate. [Web Drawing]. Retrieved from http://mediamatters. org/blog/2013/01/14/how-the-right-wing-media-inflames-the-gun-debat/192217 How to cite Political Cartoon Analysis, Essay examples

Stars Essay Example For Students

Stars Essay A star is a large ball of hot gas, thousands to millions of kilometersin diameter, emitting large amounts of radiant energy from nuclearreactions in its interior. Stars differ fundamentally from planets in thatthey are self-luminous, whereas planets shine by reflected sunlight. Exceptfor the SUN, which is the nearest star, stars appear only as points oflight, even in the largest telescopes, because of their distance. The brightest stars have long been given names. Most of the familiarnames originated with the ancient Greeks or with later Arab astronomers; anentirely different system was used by the Chinese, starting hundreds ofyears earlier, about 1000 BC. Polaris, the North Star, has a Greek name;Betelgeuse, a bright red star, has an Arabic name. Modern astronomersdesignate the bright stars according to the CONSTELLATIONS they are in. Thus, the brightest star in the Big Dipper (part of the constellation UrsaMajor) is called alpha Ursa Majoris. Polaris, in the Little Dipper (UrsaMinor), is gamma (designated by the Greek lower-case letter gamma) UrsaMinoris, and Betelgeuse, in Orion, is gamma Orionis. VARIABLE STARS (thosewhich periodically change in brightness) have lettered names, such as RRLyrae in the constellation Lyra. Fainter stars are known by their numbersin a catalog; HD 12938 is the 12,938th star in the Henry Draper Catalogue. We will write a custom essay on Stars specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now CHARACTERISTICS OF STARS Each star in the universe has its own position, motion, size, mass,chemical composition, and temperature. Some stars are grouped intoclusters, and stars and star clusters are collected in the larger groupingscalled galaxies. Our GALAXY, the Milky Way, contains more than 100 billionstars. Because tens of millions of other galaxies are known to exist, thetotal number of stars in the universe exceeds a billion billion. Positions, Motions, and Distances Stars are seen in the same relative positions, night after night, yearafter year. They provided early astronomers with a reference system formeasuring the motions of planets (wandering stars), the Moon, and theSun. The westward rotation of the celestial sphere simply reflects thedaily eastward rotation of the Earth, and the Suns apparent motion amongthe stars reflects the Earths annual orbit around the Sun. As the construction of larger telescopes during the 19th centuryimproved the accuracy of determining stellar positions, it was found thatsome stars are not precisely fixed. They move at various speeds, measuredas changes of direction in fractions of a second of arc per year, where onesecond of arc is the angular size of a pinhead 183 m (200 yd) away. Most ofthe faint stars are truly fixed as viewed from Earth and are used as areference frame for the minute motions of nearby stars, known as PROPERMOTION. PARALLAX is another apparent motion of nearby stars. It is caused bythe Earths orbit around the Sun: the star seems to shift, first one way,then the other, as the Earth moves from 150 million km (93 million mi) onone side of the Sun to 150 million km on the other side. Stellar parallaxcan be used to determine astronomical DISTANCE. If the shift is 1 second ofarc each way, the star is about 32 million million km (20 million millionmi) from an observer. This distance is called the parsec and is equal to3.26 light-years. The parallaxes of several thousand stars have beenmeasured during the past several decades. The nearest star is ProximaCentauri, at about 1 parsec (3.3 light-years). Most of the measureddistances are greater than 20 parsecs (65 light-years), which shows why theaverage star in the sky is so much fainter than the nearby Sun. Brightness and Luminosity Star brightness was first estimated by eye, and the brightest stars inthe sky were described as stars of the first magnitude. Later, themagnitude scale was defined more accurately: 6th magnitude stars are just1/100 as bright as 1st magnitude stars; 11th magnitude stars are 1/100 asbright as 6th magnitude, and so on. The magnitude scale is logarithmic;that is, each magnitude corresponds to a factor of 1/2.54, because (1/2.54)to the power of 5 =1/100 (see MAGNITUDE). Photographs are also used to measure star brightness from the size andblackness of images on a photographic plate exposed in a telescope-camera. With the photographic emulsions available in the early 1900s, a blue starthat appeared to the eye to have the same brightness as a red starphotographed much brighter. This discrepancy occurred because emulsions atthat time were much more sensitive to blue light than to red. Because ofthis variation, two magnitude scales came into use: visual magnitude andphotographic magnitude. The difference for any one star, photographicmagnitude minus visual magnitude, measures the color of that starpositivefor red stars, negative for blue (see COLOR INDEX). By using filters andspecial emulsions, astronomers soon had several other magnitude scales,including ultraviolet and infrared. When photoelectric detectors wereintroduced, the brightnesses of stars were measured with a photoelectricphotometer at the focus of a telescope. Standard colors (wavelengths) oflight were adopted, and the symbols were changed to V and B, with U for theultraviolet scale, and several other letters for infrared scales. Measuring the brightness of a star on any of these scales iscomplicated by factors related to the Earths atmosphere, which absorbsmore light when a star is near the horizon than when it is overhead. Theatmosphere also absorbs different amounts of the different colors and canchange during the night because of changing dust or moisture in the air. Nevertheless, by comparing a star with a standard at the same height abovethe horizon, astronomers using photoelectric photometers can measure U, B,and V magnitudes with an accuracy of 0.01 magnitude (see PHOTOMETRY,ASTRONOMICAL). Such photometry has provided a great deal of information regarding thetemperatures and energy output of stars, but it does not give the totalenergy output. Each measurement (U, B, V) gives only a fraction of thestars light reaching the Earth; even if the measurements are combined,they give only the part that is not absorbed as it passes through theEarths atmosphere. The atmosphere absorbs all light of short wavelengthsbelow ultraviolet and many of the long wavelengths above red. A theoreticalcorrection can be made, based on the stars temperature, to give abolometric magnitude, m(b), adding the energy absorbed by the atmosphere. True bolometric magnitudes, however, are measured only from rockets andspacecraft outside the Earths atmosphere. From parallax-distance measurements it is possible to calculate theabsolute bolometric magnitude, or luminosity, of a star, which is a measureof its brightness relative to the Sun if it were at the Suns distance froman observer on Earth. During the 1920s it was found that some stars(giants) are 100,000 times as luminous as the Sun; others (white dwarfs)are 1,000 times less luminous. Composition During ancient times and the Middle Ages stars were thought to be madeof an ethereal element different from matter on Earth. Their actualcomposition did not become known until the invention of the SPECTROSCOPE inthe 19th century. Through the refraction of light by a prism (see PRISM,physics) or through its diffraction by a DIFFRACTION GRATING, the lightfrom a source is spread out into its different visual wavelengths, from redto blue; this is known as its SPECTRUM. The spectra of the Sun and starsexhibited bright and dark lines, which were shown to be caused by elementsemitting or absorbing light at specific wavelengths. Because each elementemits or absorbs light only at specific wavelengths, the chemicalcomposition of stars can be determined. In this way the spectroscopedemonstrated that the gases in the Sun and stars are those of commonelements such as hydrogen, helium, iron, and calcium at temperatures ofseveral thousand degrees. It was found that the average stars atm osphereconsists mostly of hydrogen (87%) and helium (10%), an element discoveredfrom spectra of the Sun, with all other elements making up about 3%. Heliumactually was first discovered in the Suns spectrum. .u71741789056910f8f625c0da4b310e96 , .u71741789056910f8f625c0da4b310e96 .postImageUrl , .u71741789056910f8f625c0da4b310e96 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u71741789056910f8f625c0da4b310e96 , .u71741789056910f8f625c0da4b310e96:hover , .u71741789056910f8f625c0da4b310e96:visited , .u71741789056910f8f625c0da4b310e96:active { border:0!important; } .u71741789056910f8f625c0da4b310e96 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u71741789056910f8f625c0da4b310e96 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u71741789056910f8f625c0da4b310e96:active , .u71741789056910f8f625c0da4b310e96:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u71741789056910f8f625c0da4b310e96 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u71741789056910f8f625c0da4b310e96 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u71741789056910f8f625c0da4b310e96 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u71741789056910f8f625c0da4b310e96 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u71741789056910f8f625c0da4b310e96:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u71741789056910f8f625c0da4b310e96 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u71741789056910f8f625c0da4b310e96 .u71741789056910f8f625c0da4b310e96-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u71741789056910f8f625c0da4b310e96:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Importance Of Political Parties EssayAt first, visual estimates of the strengths of spectral lines wereused to estimate the amounts of the elements present in the Sun and a fewstars, based on an analysis of the lines produced by a laboratory lightsource. When photographic emulsions came into use, the spectroscope becamethe spectrograph, with a photographic film or plate replacing the humaneye. During the first half of the 20th century, spectrographs were used ontelescopes to observe thousands of stars. On the spectrogram, theintensities of the lines are measured from the blackness of the film orplate. Most recently, photoelectric detectors are used to scan the spectrumin a spectrophotometer. Stellar spectra can also be measured byinterferometer techniques. Although the ultraviolet, visual, and infrared parts of a starsspectrum can be measured in this way, other techniques must be used, abovethe atmosphere, to measure the shorter wavelength spectra of X-ray starsand gamma-ray stars. Instead of gratings and prisms, various combinationsof filters and detectors are used to measure portions of the X-ray andgamma-ray spectra. At the other extreme (long wavelengths), radio spectraof stars and other radio sources are measured by tuning a radio telescopeto different frequencies. A radio telescopethe largest is more than 305 m(1,000 ft) acrossis like a giant optical reflector with a radio amplifierat the focus. Radio spectra are much more accurate than optical spectra. Multiple radio telescopes, placed thousands of kilometers apart, candetermine the position of a radio-emitting star as accurately as an opticaltelescope can, to better than 0.1 second of arc (see RADIO ASTRONOMY). Spectral Type and Surface Temperature During the early decades of the 20th century, Annie J. Cannon atHarvard University examined thousands of stellar spectra. Without concernfor the actual atmospheric gases or temperatures, Cannon classified eachspectrum as A, B, C, . . .S, depending on the number of absorption lines. Class A has few strong lines, class F has more, and classes M to S havebands, which are many lines close together, produced by molecules (seeHARVARD CLASSIFICATION OF STARS). Later studies showed that Cannonsclasses are a measure of surface temperature in the sequence O, B, A, F, G,K, M, R, N, S. This measurement is based partly on physicist Max Plancksformula, which gives the relative emissions of various colors from a hotbody. A cool star emits most of its light in the red; a hot star emits mostof its light in the blue. A measurement of the ratio of blue to red lightcoming from a star (its color index) determines its temperature. O starsare hot (surface temperature =30,000 K); A stars have surface temperature =10,000 K; G stars, such as the Sun, have surface temperature =6,000 K; andM stars have surface temperature =3,000 K. Other spectrographicmeasurements of absorption lines and emission lines help to confirm ormodify this so-called color temperature. From 1911 to 1913, Einar Hertzsprung and H. N. Russell first plottedthe luminosity (L) versus the surface temperature (Ts) of stars, using as ameasure of temperature the spectral types determined by Cannon. TheHERTZSPRUNG-RUSSELL DIAGRAM first showed that highly luminous stars aremostly of classes O and B, with helium lines and surface temperature=25,000 K, whereas low-luminosity stars are mostly of class M and surfacetemperature =3,000 K. Size Once the temperature and the bolometric luminosity of a star are known,its size can easily be calculated. Plancks formula gives the totalemission of radiant energy per unit area of a hot bodys surface at eachtemperature. From the bolometric luminosity, the total energy emitted isknown; from the temperature, the radiant energy emitted per squarecentimeter is known. The ratio gives the number of square centimeters, fromwhich the radius of the star can be calculated. This rough calculationshows that the radii of stars vary from 1/100 of that of the Sun for WHITEDWARFS to 400 times that of the Sun for SUPERGIANTS. The radius of a nearbystar can also be measured directly with an interferometer on a telescope. Astronomers theorize that objects with a starlike composition but too smallto initiate nuclear reactions may also exist in the universe, helping toaccount for the missing mass of COSMOLOGY theories (see BROWN DWARF). Mass More than half of all stars are BINARY STARStwo or more stars thatorbit one another. About 100 orbits have been measured accurately. Thesemeasurements provide perhaps the most important characteristic of a star:its mass. From Newtons Laws of gravitation and motion, it is known thattwo highly massive stars must orbit (one around the other) faster than twostars of lesser mass at the same distance apart; thus the masses can becalculated from the orbit size and the period of the orbit. If the binarystars eclipse each other, this situation also gives estimates of eachstars diameter. Orbits of the planets show that the Suns mass is 2 X (10to the power of 33) g (2 billion billion billion tons, or about 333,000times the Earths mass). Orbits of binary stars show that some stars(giants) are 40 times the mass of the Sun, and others (dwarfs) only 1/10the mass of the Sun. The mass of a star is also related to its luminosity; a high-mass starhas high luminosity, and a low-mass star has low luminosity. TheMASS-LUMINOSITY RELATION states that the luminosity is approximatelyproportional to (mass) to the power of 3.5. A star twice the mass of theSun will have luminosity 2 to the power of 3.5, or 11.3 times the Suns. This fact, together with the temperatures and compositions of stars, isclosely related to theories of stellar structure. In addition to luminosity and binary-star orbits, two systematicfeatures in the motions of stars relate to their masses. In many groups andclusters of stars, the stars have similar motions and similar Dopplershifts in the lines of their spectra (see RED SHIFT); these similaritiesare easy to pick out from the random motions of single stars. The smallermotions of stars within a cluster show the clusters total massthe sum ofthe masses of all the stars bound together in it by their gravitation. These internal motions can also be used statistically to determine thedistance from Earth to the cluster. More dramatic are the general motions of all the stars in the Sunsvicinity, showing a circulation around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. Again, Newtons laws apply, and from the average orbits of stars around thecenter, the mass of this GALAXY is found to be 100 billion times the Sunsmass. Because the orbital motions are faster near the center and slowerfarther away, individual motions can also be used to determine thedistances to individual stars. Since interstellar dust obscures more thanhalf of the stars in the Milky Way Galaxy, mass measurements give the onlyreliable estimate of the total number of stars in the Galaxy, 100 billion,each with a mass between (10 to the power of 32)g and 2 X (10 to the powerof 35)g. Starspots Starspots (cooler regions on the surface of stars, similar to thefamiliar SUNSPOTS) are now known to exist on a number of relatively nearbystars. The disks of such stars can be mapped to some degree to show areasof differing temperature, using the technique known as speckleinterferometry (see INTERFEROMETER). The giant star Betelgeuse was observedin this manner as long ago as the mid-1970s. By means of spectral studies,astronomers have also been able to detect apparent granulation patterns onsome stars. Such patterns on the Sun are produced by convection, or therising and falling of hotter and cooler currents just below the visiblesurface. Analysis of stellar spectra to yield this kind of detail requiresthe use of supercomputers. A larger, different kind of surface variation onstars has been reported by some astronomers, who call these variationsstarpatches.STRUCTURE OF STARS The structure of a typical star was worked out by astrophysicists after1920, largely based on obser vations of the Sun. The photosphere is thevisible surface of a star and is the layer to which the surface temperatureand radius apply. Above the photosphere is an atmosphere, mostlytransparent, where gases absorb characteristic lines in the spectrum andreveal the chemical composition of the star. .u4c4adc90e82e5a72754234dc278ed05e , .u4c4adc90e82e5a72754234dc278ed05e .postImageUrl , .u4c4adc90e82e5a72754234dc278ed05e .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u4c4adc90e82e5a72754234dc278ed05e , .u4c4adc90e82e5a72754234dc278ed05e:hover , .u4c4adc90e82e5a72754234dc278ed05e:visited , .u4c4adc90e82e5a72754234dc278ed05e:active { border:0!important; } .u4c4adc90e82e5a72754234dc278ed05e .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u4c4adc90e82e5a72754234dc278ed05e { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u4c4adc90e82e5a72754234dc278ed05e:active , .u4c4adc90e82e5a72754234dc278ed05e:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u4c4adc90e82e5a72754234dc278ed05e .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u4c4adc90e82e5a72754234dc278ed05e .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u4c4adc90e82e5a72754234dc278ed05e .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u4c4adc90e82e5a72754234dc278ed05e .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u4c4adc90e82e5a72754234dc278ed05e:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u4c4adc90e82e5a72754234dc278ed05e .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u4c4adc90e82e5a72754234dc278ed05e .u4c4adc90e82e5a72754234dc278ed05e-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u4c4adc90e82e5a72754234dc278ed05e:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Macbeth Is A Tragic Hero EssayThe temperature of the stellar atmosphere is lower than thetemperature of the photosphere. Above the atmosphere is a transparentCORONA of diffuse gas at high temperature. For reasons as yet uncertain,outgoing energy from the Sun or star heats the corona to temperatures over1,000,000 K (1,800,000 deg F), so that it emits X rays of much shorterwavelength than visible light. The solar corona also has emission lines invisible light which give it the greenish glow visible during a total solareclipse. In the atmosphere and corona of a star, explosions known as flaresoccur in regions several thousand kilometers across, shooting outhigh-speed protons and electrons and causing plumes of higher temperaturein the corona. At a fairly constant rate, high-speed protons and electronsare also shot out in all directions to form the solar or stellar wind. TheSOLAR WIND has been detected by the two VOYAGER spacecraft and PIONEERS 10and 11 on their way out of the solar system.Eventually they are expected tocross the outer boundary of the solar wind, the heliopause, whereinterstellar gas pressure stops the outflow of the wind. The knowledge of a stars internal structure is almost entirelytheoretical, based on laboratory measurements of gases. Beneath thephotosphere are several layers, some where the hot, ionized gas isturbulent, and some where it is almost at rest. Calculations of structureare based on two principles: convective equilibrium, in which turbulencebrings the energy outward, and radiative equilibrium, in which radiationbrings the energy outward. The temperature and density are calculated foreach depth, using the characteristics of the mix of gases (hydrogen,helium, and heavier elements) derived from the spectrum of the atmosphere. The pressure is calculated from the weight of the gases overhead. Eventually, deep in the interior the temperature and density are highenough (10,000,000 K and 30 g/cu cm) for a nuclear reaction to occur,converting four hydrogen atoms to one helium atom, with a 0.7% loss ofmass. Because the conversion of this mass (m) to energy (E) followsEinsteins equation E = mcc (where c is the velocity of light), such areaction releases 6.4 X (10 to the power of 18) ergs of energy per gram ofhydrogen, 60 million times more than chemical reactions such as the burningof hydrogen in oxygen. It is this enormous energy source that makeslong-lasting, self-luminous stars possible. In an attempt to determine the precise mechanism providing the energyfor stars, physicists in the early 1930s measured the rates of severalnuclear reactions in the laboratory. In 1938, Hans Bethe showed that thecarbon-nitrogen cycle could account for a stars long-lasting luminosity(see CARBON CYCLE, astronomy). In Bethes theory, carbon acts as a catalystin the conversion of hydrogen to helium. The small amount needed isconverted to nitrogen, then converted back to carbon to be used again. Thereaction rates at the temperature and density in the core of the Sun arefast enough to produce (10 to the power of 33) ergs/sec, the luminosity ofthe Sun. Later it was shown that the PROTON-PROTON REACTION could also producethe Suns luminosity. More recent studies show that in the Sun and smallerstars, where temperature and density in the core are lower than in largerstars, the proton-proton reaction beats out the Bethe cycle and can occurwith no carbon or nitrogen present, if the temperature is about 10,000,000K. In equations for the proton-proton reaction, the rates increase with thefourth power of the temperature, so that at a temperature of 20,000,000 Kthe rate is 16 times faster than at 10,000,000 K. Lithium and beryllium areprobably also involved. The NEUTRINO is a very-low-mass particle that is produced in the Sunscore and can pass through its outer regions to enter space. One of thegreat mysteries of modern astrophysics is the failure of experiments todetect the neutrinos expected from nuclear reactions in the Sun. Whether by the Bethe cycle or by the proton-proton reaction, the Sunand other stars are converting hydrogen to helium in their cores at aconsiderable rate (600,000,000 tons/sec in the Sun). Because helium hasdifferent characteristics, this conversion changes the structure of thestar. During the process there is a central core composed entirely ofhelium, a spherical shell around it in which hydrogen is being converted tohelium, and the rest of the star, composed mostly of hydrogen. When a largecore of helium has been created, the core may collapse, and new nuclearreactions may start as the temperature and density jump to very highvalues. When the temperature exceeds 100,000,000 K, helium is converted tocarbon by the triple-alpha (ionized helium) process. Astrophysicists makeuse of the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram and large computers to calculate howstars evolve in this way. They find that stars of different masses evolvein different ways and at different rates. The most massive stars ( ten timesthe Suns mass) rapidly change from blue giants to red giants and maybecome unstable and pulsate as variable stars during this stage. Stars oflesser mass, such as the Sun, spend a large fraction of their lives on themain sequence of the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram while they converthydrogen to helium. After several billion years, these stars become whitedwarfs. Depending on mass and other circumstances, a star may evolve to aNOVA or SUPERNOVA, PULSAR, NEUTRON STAR, or BLACK HOLE (see STELLAREVOLUTION). Bibliography: Barrow, J. D., and Silk, Joseph, The Left Hand of Creation(1983); Abell, G., Exploration of the Universe (1969); Baade, Walter,Evolution of Stars and Galaxies (1975); Evans Martin, Martha, The FriendlyStars, rev. ed. (1982); Goldberg, H. S., and Scadron, M. D., Physics ofStellar Evolution and Cosmology (1982); Hall, Douglas, Starspots,Astronomy, February 1983; Kruse, W., and Dieckvoss, W., The Stars (1957);Kyselka, Will, and Lanterman, Ray, North Star to Southern Cross (1976);Meadows, A. J., Stellar Evolution (1978); Page, Thornton, and Page, L. W.,Starlight (1967) and Stars and Clouds of the Milky Way (1968); Shklovskii,Iosif S., Stars: Their Birth, Life and Death, trans. by Richard Rodman(1978). THE NEAREST STARSTABLE 1DistanceApparent BrightnessName(light-years)(magnitude)Sun -26.8Centauri A4.3 -0.01Centauri B4.3 1.33Centauri C4.3 11.05Barnards Star 5.9 9.54Wolf 359 7.6 13.53Lalande 21185 8.1 7.50Sirius A 8.7 -1.47Sirius B 8.7 8.68Luyten 726-8A 8.9 12.45Luyten 726-8B 8.9 12.95Ross 154 9.4 10.6Ross 24810.3 12.29Eridani 10.7 3.73Luyten 789-6 10.8 12.18Ross 12810.8 11.1061 Cygni A11.2 5.2261 Cygni B11.2 6.03Indi11.2 4.68Procyon A11.3 0.37Procyon B11.3 10.7SOURCE: Adapted from a table compiled by Alan H. Batten in The ObserversHandbook 1976 of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada and a table Dramaof the Universe (1978) by George O. Abell (reprinted by permission of Holt,Rinehart and Winston). THE BRIGHTEST STARSTABLE 2 Apparent BrightnessDistanceNameConstellation (magnitude)(light-year)Sun26.8 Sirius ACanis Major -1.47 8.7Canopus Carina-0.7298ArcturusBootes-0.0636Centauri ACentaurus-0.01 4.3VegaLyra0.0426.5Capella Auriga 0.0545RigelOrion 0.14900Procyon ACanis Minor 0.3711.3BetelgeuseOrion 0.41520AchernarEridanus0.51118CentauriCentaurus0.63490Altair Aquila 0.7716.5Crucis Crux0.87400AldebaranTaurus 0.8668SpicaVirgo 0.91220Antares Scorpius0.92520FomalhautPiscis Austrinus1.1522.6Pollux Gemini 1.1635DenebCygnus 1.261,600Crucis Crux1.28490SOURCE: Adapted from a table compiled by Donald A. MacRae in The ObserversHandbook 1976 of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada and a table inContemporary Astronomy, 2d., by Jay m. Pasachoff, Holt/Saunders, 1980.